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Qualitative research Essay PREPARING A CASE STUDY: A Guide for Designing and Conducting a Case Study for Evaluation Input By Palena Neale, PhD, Senior Evaluation Associate Shyam Thapa, PhD, Senior Monitoring and Evaluation Advisor Carolyn Boyce, MA, Evaluation Associate May 2006 P AT H F I N D E R I N T E R N AT I O N A L T O O L S E R I E S Monitoring and Evaluation – 1 PREPARING A CASE STUDY: A Guide for Designing and Conducting a Case Study for Evaluation Input By Palena Neale, PhD, Senior Evaluation Associate Shyam Thapa, PhD, Senior Monitoring and Evaluation Advisor Carolyn Boyce, MA, Evaluation Associate. May 2006 Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the following Pathfinder employees and partners for their technical inputs into this document: Emmanuel Boadi (Pathfinder/Ghana), Anne Palmer (Futures Group International), Ugo Daniels (African Youth Alliance (AYA)), Veronique Dupont (Pathfinder/Extending Service Delivery (ESD)), Cathy Solter, Lauren Dunnington, and Shannon Pryor (Pathfinder headquarters). Jenny Wilder and Mary Burket are also thanked for their inputs and assistance in editing and producing this document. 2 PATHFINDER INTERNATIONAL: WRITING A CASE STUDY. What is a Case Study? A case study is a story about something unique, special, or interesting—stories can be about individuals, organizations, processes, programs, neighborhoods, institutions, and even events. 1 The case study gives the story behind the result by capturing what happened to bring it about, and can be a good opportunity to highlight a project’s success, or to bring attention to a particular challenge or difficulty in a project. Cases2 might be selected because they are highly effective, not effective, representative, typical, or of special interest. A few examples of case study topics are provided below—the case studies would describe what happened when, to whom, and with what consequences in each case. Case Study Examples Shifting Attitudes of Youth-Serving Service Providers Uniqueness/Point of Interest Your program was able to change service providers’ attitudes towards dealing with Adolescent Sexual and Reproductive Health (ASRH) needs in an environment where provider’s attitudes have been a barrier to young people accessing SRH services. Your program was effective in introducing YFS to the MOH and in institutionalizing an YFS curriculum in a setting where the MOH did not provide YFS. Your program was able to integrate HIV prevention in several FBO service delivery points in an environment that normally does not include or welcome HIV prevention activities. Your program built the leadership capacity of youth to advocate, promote, and participate in decision making around ASRH. This transpired in a setting that did not include ASRH on the agenda nor encourage youth participation in general or in decision making in particular. Integrating Youth-Friendly Services (YFS) in the Ministry of Health (MOH) Integrating HIV Prevention in Faith-Based Organization (FBO) Health Services Delivery. Developing Youth Leadership in Tanzania 1 2 Yin, Robert K. (2003). Case Study Research: Design and Methods. Thousand Oakds: Sage Publications. Case refers to the unit of analysis or topic chosen for study (i. e. , the individual, organization, or program). PATHFINDER INTERNATIONAL: WRITING A CASE STUDY 3 When is a Case Study Appropriate? Case studies are appropriate when there is a unique or interesting story to be told. Case studies are often used to provide context to other data (such as outcome data), offering a more complete picture of what happened in the program and why. What are the Advantages and Limitations of a Case Study? The primary advantage of a case study is that it provides much more detailed information than what is available through other methods, such as surveys. Case studies also allow one to present data collected from multiple methods (i. e. , surveys, interviews, document review, and observation) to provide the complete story. There are a few limitations and pitfalls however, each of which is described below. Can be lengthy: Because they provide detailed information about the case in narrative form, it may be difficult to hold a reader’s interest if too lengthy. In writing the case study, care should be taken to provide the rich information in a digestible manner. Concern that case studies lack rigor: Case studies have been viewed in the evaluation and research fields as less rigorous than surveys or other methods. Reasons for this include the fact that qualitative research in general is still considered unscientific by some and in many cases, case study researchers have not been systematic in their data collection or have allowed bias in their findings. In conducting and writing case studies, all involved should use care in being systematic in their data collection and take steps to ensure validity3 and reliability4 in the study. Not generalizable: A common complaint about case studies is that it is difficult to generalize from one case to another. But case studies have also been prone to overgeneralization, which comes from selecting a few examples and assuming without evidence that they are typical or representative of the population. Yin, a prominent researcher, advises case study analysts to generalize findings to theories, as a scientist generalizes from experimental results to theories. 5 3 4 Validity refers to the degree to which a study accurately reflects or assesses the specific concept that the researcher is attempting to measure. Reliability is the extent to which an experiment, test, or any measuring procedure yields the same result on repeated trials. 5 Yin, Robert K. (2003). Case Study Research: Design and Methods. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. 4 PATHFINDER INTERNATIONAL: WRITING A CASE STUDY. What is the Process for Conducting a Case Study? The process for conducting case study research follows the same general process as is followed for other research: plan, collect data, analyze data, and disseminate findings. More detailed steps are given below. 1. Plan †¢ Identify stakeholders who will be involved. †¢ Brainstorm a case study topic, considering types of cases and why they are unique or of interest. †¢ Identify what information is needed and from whom (see â€Å"What are Potential Sources of Information? † and â€Å"What are the Elements of a Case Study? †). †¢ Identify any documents needed for review. †¢ List stakeholders to be interviewed or surveyed (national, facility, and beneficiary levels) and determine sample if necessary. †¢ Ensure research will follow international and national ethical research standards, including review by ethical research committees. For more information, please see the International Ethical Guidelines for Biomedical Research Involving Human Subjects, available at http://www. cioms. ch/frame_guidelines_nov_2002. htm. 2. Develop Instruments †¢ Develop interview/survey protocols—the rules that guide the administration and implementation of the interview/survey. Put simply, these are the instructions that are followed to ensure consistency across interviews/surveys, and thus increase the reliability of the findings. The following instructions for the should be included in the protocol: †¢ What to say to interviewees when setting up the interview/survey; †¢ What to say to interviewees when beginning the interview/survey, including ensuring informed consent of the respondent (see Appendix 1 for an example); †¢ What to say to respondent in concluding the interview; †¢ What to do during the interview (Example: Take notes? Audiotape? Both?); and †¢ What to do following the interview (Example: Fill in notes? Check audiotape for clarity? Summarize key information for each? Submit written findings? ). †¢ Develop an interview guide/survey that lists the questions or issues to be explored and includes an informed consent form. Please note that you will likely need interview guides/surveys for each group of stakeholders, as questions may differ. †¢ Where necessary, translate guides into local languages and test translation. PATHFINDER INTERNATIONAL: WRITING A CASE STUDY 5 3. Train Data Collectors †¢ Identify and train data collectors (if necessary). (See â€Å"Training Tips for Data Collectors†6. ) Where necessary, use interviewers that speak the local language. Training Tips for Data Collectors Staff, youth program participants, or professional interviewers may be involved in data collection. Regardless of what experience data collectors have, training should include: †¢ An introduction to the evaluation objectives, †¢ A review of data collection techniques, †¢ A thorough review of the data collection items and instruments, †¢ Practice in the use of the instruments, †¢ Skill-building exercises on interviewing and interpersonal communication, and †¢ Discussion of ethical issues. 4. Collect Data †¢ Gather all relevant documents. †¢ Set up interviews/surveys with stakeholders (be sure to explain the purpose, why the stakeholder has been chosen, and the expected duration). †¢ Seek informed consent of each respondent (written or documented oral). Re-explain purpose of interview, why the stakeholder has been chosen, expected duration of, whether and how the information will be kept confidential, and the use of a note taker/tape recorder. †¢ If the respondent has consented, conduct the interview/survey. 5. Analyze Data †¢ Review all relevant documents. †¢ Review all interview/survey data. 6. Disseminate Findings †¢ Write report (see â€Å"What are the Elements of a Case Study? †). †¢ Solicit feedback. †¢ Revise †¢ Disseminate 6 Adamchak, S. , et. al. (2000). A Guide to Monitoring and Evaluating Adolescent Reproductive Health Programs. Available at http://www. pathfind. org/site/PageServer? pagename=Publications_FOCUS_Guides_and_Tools. 6 PATHFINDER INTERNATIONAL: WRITING A CASE STUDY What are Potential Sources of Information? Case studies typically rely on multiple sources of information and methods to provide as complete a picture as possible. Information sources could include: †¢ Project documents (including meeting minutes) †¢ Project reports, including quarterly reports, midterm reviews †¢ Monitoring visits †¢ Mystery client reports †¢ Facility assessment reports †¢ Interviews †¢ Questionnaire/survey results †¢ Evaluation reports †¢ Observation †¢ Other What are the Elements of a Case Study? Case studies do not have set elements that need to be included; the elements of each will vary depending on the case or story chosen, the data collected, and the purpose (for example, to illustrate a best case versus a typical case). However, case studies typically describe a program or intervention put in place to address a particular problem. Therefore, we provide the following elements and example on which you might draw: 1. The Problem i. Identify the problem ii. Explain why the problem is important iii. How was the problem identified? iv. Was the process for identifying the problem effective? 2. Steps taken to address the problem 3. Results 4. Challenges and how they were met 5. Beyond Results 6. Lessons Learned. PATHFINDER INTERNATIONAL: WRITING A CASE STUDY 7 1. The Problem: It is essential to identify what the problem was. Specifically: i. Identify the problem. For example, certain FBO leadership was opposed to including HIV prevention activities within their programming. Specifically, they felt that prevention activities would promote sex among youth and thereby increase the incidence of HIV. In addition, the FBO felt that the promotion of condoms as a form of prevention was morally wrong. ii. Explain why the problem is important. Following the same example, to provide a comprehensive response to HIV/AIDS, prevention activities are an important part of HIV programming, in addition to care and support. Addressing moral and religious concerns and objections of FBO leaders in order to incorporate this component greatly expands the prevention effort and offers a greater breadth and depth in HIV programming. iii. How was the problem identified? It is likely that program staff will have an idea of what general problems exist. For example, YFS is not integrated in the MOH, FBOs do not include prevention activities, youth involvement does not occur, etc. What was likely missing and required exploration were the details around this general problem. In the case of working with FBOs, an initial project planning meeting was held to discuss the specifics behind the problem. It was revealed during this process that certain FBOs who conducted care and support activities did not offer prevention activities, specifically condom promotion. The primary reason given was religious objections; another reason identified but not explicitly stated was stigma. iv. Was the process for identifying the problem effective? After additional one-on-one discussions with FBO leaders, it was determined that the leaders had concerns based on moral and religious grounds regarding prevention efforts, particularly promoting condoms. Furthermore, discussions revealed that a number of leaders had limited and/or erroneous information regarding transmission and prevention options. 8 PATHFINDER INTERNATIONAL: WRITING A CASE STUDY 2. Steps Undertaken to Address the Problem: What was done (activities/ interventions/ inputs), where, by whom, for whom? In the case of integrating prevention in FBOs, an illustrative outline of steps undertaken to address the problem is given below: What was done? Phase 1: Sensitization Sensitization of leadership: activities included reviewing FBO policies and bylaws by program staff in order to demonstrate to leadership that there were no constitutional objections to prevention activities. Project staff engaged liberal FBO leaders to supply quotes from the Bible to build their evidence-based argument to convince other leaders that there was in fact no biblical basis for the preclusion of prevention activities. Sensitization of facility managers: meet with managers to discuss leadership approval and present evidence-based arguments on why integration activities can be included. Sensitization of community: work with groups to explain that these activities have been approved by the FBO leadership and where they can go to receive services. Phase 2: Integration Facility assessments Selected facilities Project Staff, FBO representatives Local Implementing Partners (IPs) Project Staff, Facility Managers Contractor FBOs, Project Staff Facility Staff District/ National Project Staff FBO leaders Where? By Whom? For Whom? Facilities Project Staff Facility Managers Community catchment areas Project Staff Community members Training of service providers Selected facilities Conduct staff orientations Facilities Facility Staff Physical infrastructure improved Phase 3: Outreach Identify peers that you want to work with Training Provide Tools Supervision Phase 4: ME Reassessments Facilities Facility Selected facilities Facilities Facility Staff IPs Project Peer supervisors Beneficiaries Peers Peers Peers Sample of selected facilities Project Staff, Facility Management, Youth Trained mystery clients Project Staff, Peer Supervisors. Facility, Project Staff Mystery client interviews Monitoring visits Facilities Facilities, Peers Facility staff, Project Staff PATHFINDER INTERNATIONAL: WRITING A CASE STUDY 9 3. Results: What were the results of your intervention, particularly the significant or unique results? For example: your activities resulted in the FBO including HIV prevention activities in their programming, which contributed to an increase in condom distribution. Or, your activities resulted in youth-serving service providers adopting a youth-friendly attitude which contributed to improved services and an increase in youth visits. Church leadership may have made a commitment and modified policies to include ASRH activities, leadership talking about the issues publicly. Facility managers may make financial commitments to refurbishments, training, etc. 4. Challenges and how they were met: This focuses on what challenges or difficulties you encountered and what you did to overcome them. One of the challenges in working with FBOs may have been dealing with Catholic FBOs and your response could have been to negotiate with them to include certain prevention activities like abstinence, and/or providing a referral point to youth who may want to get information about condoms. Another possible challenge is that not all FBOs who you had hoped to work with were willing to come on board and this required additional attention. 5. Beyond Results: Are the results mentioned above sustainable? Why or why not? For example, an integrated approach to programming (which included a strong policy and advocacy component) created an enabling policy environment with strong stakeholder support that can be nurtured and leveraged beyond the project duration. 6. Lessons Learned: What lessons were learned: programmatic, technical, financial, process, etc.? For example, the experience showed that it was imperative for project staff to have a very solid understanding of government policies to speak to these issues with key stakeholders. In addition, it was important to have a good understanding of the various religious beliefs in addition to their respective policies and by-laws for developing and delivering advocacy arguments. How are Case Studies Presented? Case studies are flexible in that they can be presented in a number of ways—there is no specific format to follow. However, like all evaluation results, justification and methodology of the study should be provided, as well as any supporting information (i. e. , copies of instruments and guides used in the study). Case studies may stand alone or be included in a larger evaluation report. If presented as a stand-alone report, the following report outline is suggested: 1. Introduction and Justification 2. Methodology a. How was the process carried out? (Describe the process of selecting the case and data collection sources, as well as how data was collected. ) b. What assumptions are there (if any)? 10 PATHFINDER INTERNATIONAL: WRITING A CASE STUDY 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. c. Are there any limitations with this method? d. What instruments were used to collect data? (You may want to include some or all in the appendix. ) e. What sample(s) is/are being used? f. Over which period of time was this data collected? The Problem The Steps Taken to Address the Problem The Results The Challenges and How They were Met Beyond Results Lessons Learned Conclusion Appendices Where Can More Information on Case Studies be Found? Information on Case Study Research Adamchak, S. , et. al. (2000). A Guide to Monitoring and Evaluating Adolescent Reproductive Health Programs. Available at http://www. pathfind. org/pf/pubs/focus/guidesandtools/PDF/Part%20II. pdf. Patton, Michael Q. (2002). Qualitative Research Evaluation Methods. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Stake, Robert E. (1995). The Art of Case Study Research. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. United States General Accounting Office, Program Evaluation and Methodology Division. (1987). Case Study Evaluations. Available at http://161. 203. 16. 4/t2pbat22/132683. pdf. Yin, Robert K. (2003). Case Study Research: Design and Methods. London: Sage Publications. Examples of Case Studies Cornwall, A. and Welbourn, A. (2002). Realizing Rights: Transforming Approaches to Sexual and Reproductive Well-Being. London: Zed Books. Population Council. Quality/Calidad/Qualite series. Available at http://www. popcouncil. org/publications/qcq/default. htm. SRI International. (2001). The Organization of Learning in Community Technology Centers: Learning with Technology in Six Communities. Available at http://www. americaconnects. net/research/SRI_case_study_report. pdf. PATHFINDER INTERNATIONAL: WRITING A CASE STUDY 11 Appendix 1: Sample Informed Consent Form Key Components: †¢ Thank you †¢ Your name †¢ Purpose †¢ Confidentiality †¢ Duration †¢ How interview will be conducted †¢ Opportunity for questions †¢ Signature of consent I want to thank you for taking the time to meet with me today. My name is ________________________ and I would like to talk to you about your experiences participating in the African Youth Alliance (AYA) project. Specifically, as one of the components of our overall program evaluation we are assessing program effectiveness in order to capture lessons that can be used in future interventions. The interview should take less than an hour. I will be taping the session because I don’t want to miss any of your comments. Although I will be taking some notes during the session, I can’t possibly write fast enough to get it all down. Because we’re on tape, please be sure to speak up so that we don’t miss your comments. All responses will be kept confidential. This means that your interview responses will only be shared with research team members and we will ensure that any information we include in our report does not identify you as the respondent. Remember, you don’t have to talk about anything you don’t want to and you may end the interview at any time. Are there any questions about what I have just explained? Are you willing to participate in this interview? __________________ Interviewee __________________ Witness __________ Date ______________________________________ Legal guardian (if interviewee is under 18) 12 PATHFINDER INTERNATIONAL: SAMPLE INFORMED CONSENT FORM Pathfinder International 9 Galen Street, Suite 217 Watertown, MA 02472 USA Tel: 617-924-7200 Email: [emailprotected] org 05/06/500.

The British Foreign Policy

The British Foreign Policy This essay aims to establish the role the Prime Minister plays in setting, shaping and implementing foreign policy in the UK by exploring decision-making patterns by former Prime Ministers in the related field, as well as current governments choices and aspirations on the international arena, and the contribution of Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) and other bodies. As Paul Williams (2004: 911) noted that foreign policy is not made in a political vacuum it is paramount to take into consideration Britain`s national interest in international relations and the countrys position in the existing paradigm of world politics. First, it will define what foreign policy is and why it takes a special place in policy making. Foreign policy will be analysed against following factors: globalisation, public opinion and national interest. Also, it will summarize the key models of the Foreign Policy Analysis (Allison 1971) and question their effectiveness and drawbacks. Second, the essay will refer to case studies on the subject to bring empirical data into analysis. The case studies include the Europeanization of the foreign policy in the UK, the US-UK intervention in Iraq in terms of the ethical foreign policy. They will help to access the role played by foreign policy makers. Given the length of this essay it will not comment in detail on the influence of NGOs, British ambassadors abroad and the economy; however, they are undeniable parts of foreign policy-making process. Finally, the essay will discuss a possible course of action for the UK to take in order to achieve a successful foreign policy and bring back the power to British decision-makers. What could be done to overcome common thinking of foreign policy being about getting our way in an unhelpful world (Cradock 1997: 99-100). What foreign policy is? Definition, context, goals In the modern world it is impossible to imagine a country without a well-defined set of rules of behaviour towards its geopolitical neighbours and economic partners. The question remains, however, as to what extent foreign policy represents interests of leaders, political parties and general public of a particular country. Collective coping with the international environment is, indeed, a useful shorthand definition of foreign policy according to Christopher Hill (2003: 9) but this definition leaves infinite variants of interpretation of what collective is and who plays the leading role in doing so the Prime Minister, the Foreign Secretary, a collaboration of both, official agents interpreting and implementing policies or influence of powerful countries that Britain has close relationship with? In order to understand who conducts the British foreign policy it is essential to outline the policy goals first. William Hague, the current Foreign Secretary, in his speech on the 1st of July, 2010 promises to deliver a distinctive British foreign policy that extends our global reach and influence, that is agile and energetic in a networked world, that uses diplomacy to secure our prosperity, that builds up significantly strengthened bilateral relations for Britain, that harnesses the appeal of our culture and heritage to promote our values, and that sets out to make the most of the abundant opportunities of the 21st century systematically and for the long-term. So for the first time in years in my view Britain will have a foreign policy that is clear, focused and effective. His statement highlights the fact that UK foreign policy is not pursuing one goal; on the contrary, it seeks to accomplish multiple aims: to extend Britain global influence, to secure prosperity, to promote values through culture, etc. Successfully achieving them means achieving each part separately which involves resources and actors in different areas. As a result some policies might overlap and even contradict one another (Williams 2004: 913) and it is worthwhile looking at specific parts of the policy rather than a whole. Foreign policy has been characterised by being overly secretive and elitist which makes it more complicated to trace the decision-making process. Foreign policy takes a special place in the whole policy-making field as it is closely linked with politics. It should not come as a surprise since it deals with sensitive issues like intelligence services and diplomacy, which seldom become available to general public, for obvious reasons: the information might fall into the wrong hands and undermine the objectives set by the policy. Nevertheless, it is possible to comprehend in which direction foreign policy is headed based on the past decisions made by politicians and the impact they made at the time. This direction a state chooses to follow depends greatly on the personality of a leader, current administration and economic situation a state finds itself in. Foreign policy is conducted in complex internal and international environments; it results from coalitions of active actors and grou ps situated both inside and outside state boundaries; it involves bargaining and compromise affecting the interests of both domestic and international groups (Neak cited in Carlsnaes 2008). Foreign Policy Analysis To analyse foreign policy scientifically Graham Allison (1971) in his work Essence of Decision comes up with three models of decision-making related to foreign affairs (known as Foreign Policy Analysis) trying to explain the reasons and causes behind states decisions in a crisis. The first model, Rational Actor Model (RAM), assumes that a single actor (state) makes decisions upon a calculation of possible outcomes, thus decisions are rational reactions to a particular situation. It can be said that state chooses a course of action in line with its national interest trying to avoid losses and maximize benefits. The second model, Organizational Process Behaviour (OPB), is characterised by decision made by multiple organisations that look back at previous precedent and act accordingly. Thus it tries to bring down the importance of central control in decisions. The final model, Bureaucratic Politics, is summarized by Allisons own words where you sit determines where you stand, meaning t hat governmental organizations normally have a preferred way of dealing with an international crisis. These models were used by the scholar to apply different lenses to explain the origins of the Cuban Missile Crisis and establish how and why the USA and the USSR came to the choices they made during the conflict. Allison admits that these three models are not capable of encompassing all possible variants, his study became a milestone in FPA as it attempted to present social science capable of achieving clear and objective explanations of social and political actions. Stein (2008) develops the idea of rational-decision making further: in order for a policy maker to make a rational choice, he/she needs to value how reliable the information is, and whether it comes from a trustworthy source. Moreover, any new information that might turn up has to be evaluated against diagnostic evidence that takes into consideration the consequences the policy maker is considering. Who is in charge? On paper it is the Foreign Secretary who conducts foreign policy in the UK although it hasnt always been the case. The Prime Minister retains the power to declare war and deploy military troops, making the fragile equilibrium of power shift. Tony Blair has shown that depending on who is leading the country, the style of policy-making changes dramatically. During New Labour the most important decisions on foreign policy were not taken at the FCO but in the Cabinet. His leadership earned the name interventiolalist as Britain took part in several military operations: Barras in Sierra Leone, Desert Fox in Iraq amongst others. It is the Prime Ministers decision whether to send troops into combat or not and Blair chose to consult not the cabinet as a whole but rather small ad hoc committees of advisers. Anthony Sheldon (2004: 692) named these groups denocracy as their meetings took place in Blairs office, the den. Such exclusiveness promotes confusion as a small circle of trusted ministers and advisors gives an impression that the policy as a whole is reactive rather than proactive. It is worthwhile mentioning that the UK is a parliamentary monarchy and the Queen is the official ruler in the UK. Although her power is mostly of a ceremonial nature, nevertheless, she plays an important role in representing the country at various levels: the UK, the Commonwealth and internationally. In her speech to the Parliament on the 9th of May 2012 the Queen set the following agenda: to strengthen oversight of the security and intelligence agencies, to seek approval of Parliament on the anticipated accession of Croatia to the EU, to support a secure and stable Afghanistan, to reduce the threat of nuclear proliferation in Iran and to build strategic partnerships with the emerging powers. These goals show that the Queen is far from being above politics, on the contrary, she is greatly concerned with Britains position in the fast developing world and foreign policy is one of her concerns. Factors influencing the British foreign policy: American influence The UK boasts to have a special relationship with the USA in terms of foreign policy. British foreign policy has privileged the idea of working closely with the United States, particularly in the area of international security, where the UK has provided the largest and most effective non-US contingent to three American-led conflicts in recent years twice in Iraq and once in Afghanistan (Wallace and Phillips, 2009: 267). The two countries have been allies for a long period of time and acted accordingly. Britain considers its international relations with the USA to be as important as its ties with Europe, if not more. However, in the light of Britain losing its imperial power long ago and the hegemonic rise of the US, arguably, Britain plays along with the American directives. This was the case in all interventions where the USA took part in the last 60 years except the conflict in the Falklands. It appears that Britain is torn among its own interests, the EU integration and Anglo-American ties (Atlanticism). Blair decided to strengthen the countrys position by addressing these three issues at once. The USA will benefit from a special relationship with the UK when making decisions in Europe and vice versa. This special relationship (Wallace and Philips 2009: 267-274) includes defence cooperation, military nuclear cooperation, provision of bases to the United States and intelligence relationship. But does Britain get out as much as the USA in this relationship? The answer to this question remains unclear: On issues as varied as the Kyoto Treaty, the Ottawa Treaty banning landmines, the war in Kosovo, the attack on Afghanistan, the Middle East peace process, the Iraq war and subsequent occupation, or the holding of British captives at Guantà ¡namo Bay, there has been little evidence of the UKs ability to shape US policy. Indeed, British governments, in clinging to the idea of the special relationship, have generally overlooked the fact that the US has several privileged relationships, notably with Mexico, Israel, Australia, Italy and Poland. (Wallace 2009: 65) While Brits assume that Americans hold certain sentiment towards shared past and noble goals, the USA might be pursuing its own national interest instead. Riddell (2003) argues that America is not disposed to sacrifice national interest on the altar of nostalgia or sentiment and shows scant regard for those who do. It shows that no matter who the USA considers to be its allies, it is going to pursue its own national interest and foreign policy. Tony Blair was not the first Prime Minister who chose to play a bigger role in foreign-policy making. Margaret Thatcher in her role as the Prime Minister had her own very specific view on how to conduct foreign policy. Her initiative to take part in the military conflict in the Falklands wasnt supported by the USA at first which didnt stop her. She had very distinctive views about Anglo-European relationship as well and the FCO was often excluded from the decision-making process. She blamed the FCO for being pro-European and considered creating a separate body to counteract the FCOs dominance in foreign policy-making. The UK and the EU: the FCO adapting to Europeanization While Anglo-American relations occupy an important place in Britains foreign policy there is another undeniable partner that has become more and more relevant in the recent years the European Union. British policy-makers have traditionally accorded a higher priority to transatlantic security relations than to relations with their European partners. This is despite having enjoyed arguably more success in shaping the actions of the EU than in influencing key decisions in Washington. In recent years, and on crucial issues such as defence, energy and environmental policy, Tony Blair played a crucial role in shaping the EU agenda. (Wall cited in Menon, 2010) After Britain joined the EU (EEC) in 1973 it became apparent that the country needs to integrate into the EU and to do so it had to adapt and reform its foreign policy. The FCO anticipated the changes both with suspicion and high hopes for a stronger Europe. Inevitably the line between domestic and foreign has become thinner and thinner as the EU touched upon an array of issues. Since the creation of the EU has influenced its member states so greatly it is argued that they became Europeanized. Bulmer and Burch (1998: 602) define Europeanization as the extent to which EC/EU requirements and policies have affected the determination of member states policy agendas and goals. Arguably the FCO lost part of its power to the EU in terms of policy-making towards Europe. The FCO wanted to retain its power as a sole determinant of Britains national interest. David Allen (2008: 3) points out that the FCOs position within British central government has been both enhanced and challenged by European integration. At the same time David Milliband (2009) emphasizes how important albeit difficult the integration is we can lead a strong European foreign policy or lost in hubris, nostalgia or xenophobia watch our influence in the world wane. Structurally, a Permanent Under-Secretary (PUS) remains as the top role of the FCO. PUS coordinates the FCOs work overseas and its administration. Another key role is held by Political Director, who makes sure that Britains interests are represented at European Political Cooperation (EPS), which is now effectively the top policy advisory post. Allen (2008) explains how these posts work as a tandem: The specific position of Political Director can be explained in terms of Europeanization in that the FCO willingly adapted its management structure so as to effectively participate in the EPC. This adaptation has led to spillover whereby the Political Director now plays a larger role than perhaps originally intended. However, the different roles played by the PUS and Political Director are the result of both EU membership and other factors, especially the need for improved management within the FCO. Britain remains being euro-sceptic towards further integration in the EU, it repeatedly criticises the current weakness of the economy in Europe and is not satisfied with being a member of the three major states (along with Germany and France) that have to help out weaker countries sometimes at their own expense. However, in the era of globalisation further integration is inevitable and the UK is more Europeanized than it thinks is. At a general level British foreign policy has undoubtedly been affected by a process of Europeanization, although the extent to which this has impacted upon actual policy will vary from issue to issue. In particular, British policy has been Europeanized at an ideological level, in regard to foreign policy-making, and in relation to the agenda and content of policy. However, the process of Europeanization has not entirely subsumed a distinctly British foreign policy. In this sense, successive British governments have been quite successful at using the European level of foreign policy to achieve its own objectives and simultaneously prevent unnecessary levels of integration. (Williams, 2002) Paradoxically, the EU shouldnt have foreign policy in the first place as it is not a sovereign state. Because of Maastricht Treaty 1993 the EU member states are committed to a common European and Security policy (CFSP) which enables them to pursue their own national interests but at the same time to coordinate them on the European level. This can be achieved with the help of the European Community, the CFSP and Justice and Home Affairs (JHA) which are responsible for different policy issues such as external economic relations, political and security question, international crime and terrorism respectively. Sometimes events on a global scale are capable to change foreign policy almost overnight. The 9/11 terrorist attacks in New York transformed British, European and American foreign policy and only after three days, on the 14th of September, the EU passed a declaration on European arrest warrants and measures to combat terrorism. This brings another foreign-policy dilemma the ethical dimension. As Tone Blair declared to bring human rights at the very heart of foreign-policy it remains unclear which ethics British foreign policy should pursue. The war on terror had best intentions in its core; nevertheless, Britain has to draw a line on its use of power to do so. Blair followed the doctrine of liberal interventionism, promoting liberal beliefs and sometimes imposing it on the countries with contrasting views: Afghanistan, East Timor, Iraq, Kosovo, Sierra Leone and the Democratic Republic of Congo. If democracy and the rule of law are imposed in a non-negotiable way it becomes unethical as a result. Cases such as Iraq invasion in 2003 bring to attention this delicate matter in foreign policy. There was no direct threat to either US or UK sovereignty, the public polls disapproved of the intervention, yet both countries favoured the invasion. The workings of the EU institutional system mean that the coalition government may also struggle to exert the influence it desires. Britain already suffers from its exclusion from and lack of clear engagement with a key consultative forum the Eurogroup (comprising those member states that have adopted the euro). This structural weakness is only heightened by the absence of the Conservative Party from the European Peoples Party, whose members include the German Chancellor, the French President and the President of the European Commission. David Cameron will not be able to attend their pre-summit meetings, at which they coordinate negotiating positions. In other ways too, Conservative suspicions of European integration may limit the ability of the UK to achieve all that it could within the framework of the Union. What is more, to be reliable and effective foreign policy must attract domestic legitimacy, which means involving the public in the same kind of continuous dialogue as takes place over tax or transport policy. If we can accept the centrality of foreign policy in our political life without seeing it as a way of merely exporting our own superiority, we shall stand a better chance of, first, coping collectively with outsiders; second, making a contribution to a more stable and civilized international system; and third, avoiding the kind of catastrophic mistakes which cost hundreds of millions of individuals their lives in the last century, the century of progress. Public opinion and media shaping foreign policy Public opinion is another important lens of foreign-policy making. As we live in a world where communication has become instantaneous powered by digital media both politicians and policy-makers try to use it to their advantage. According to Robinson (2008) there exist two models capable of analyzing the impact of public opinion and media on a policy. The pluralist model suggests that the media and publics are independent of political influence and, as such, can act as a powerful constraint upon governments. The elite model, on the contrary, assumes that media act merely as mouthpieces for government officials, operating to mobilize publics in support of respective policies. The case of the polls on the Iraq War in the UK showed that although the majority disagreed with Tony Blairs decision to engage in the conflict, they did not stop the Prime Minister from changing his course of action. The consequences of this decision resulted in Blair not being re-elected, as the media coverage r evealed more details about the rising number of casualties in the war. Bias of the media should also be put under scrutiny the newspapers in the UK (as well as the rest of the world) often cater to different political parties promoting a certain agenda and delivering a policy chosen by that party to the public. Thus, it is extremely difficult to account for the influence of the media due to the fact that public opinion might not be partial having been shaped by the media. Foreign policy is always the product of a society, a polity, interpreting its situation and choosing who chooses is another matter to act or react in a particular, unpredetermined way. Conclusion In conclusion there is not a definite answer to who conducts the British foreign policy. Different Prime Ministers showed a ranging level of involvement into foreign policy-making process. Factors such as Europeanization, the US-UK alliance, public opinion and economic crisis make it more difficult to understand to what extent one person or several people (the Prime Minister and the Foreign Secretary along with advisors) can follow through with the propositions set at the beginning of a governments term. The process of foreign-policy making involves civil servants, ministers and officials of all spectrums as well as independent advisors, experts from the UK and worldwide. While most significant decisions are made by the Prime Minister, he makes his choice based on the data and evidence he has been given. Finally, it is not enough to simply formulate foreign policy, the major stages of the policy-making process fall onto the shoulders of civil servants who interprete, implement and pr esent the policy. Moreover, there are multiple foreign policies in the UK which demand different approaches. If the UK wants to remain its international power that has been in decline after the fall of the Empire and maintain the foreign policy that is coherent at all stages of the policy-making process, it needs to find balance between pursuing its national interest, skilfully presenting and implementing the policy at the domestic and the international levels and managing the members involved in the process. Britain faces not a menu of alternative routes to far-reaching international influence, but a choice between imperfect options (Cradock 1997). UK needs to go through the three-step process identified by Christopher Layne (cited in Menon, 2010) determining the countrys vital interests, identifying threats to these and deciding how best to deploy national resources in order to protect them.

Shakespeare Movie Reviews :: essays research papers

True love, can be a fantasy come true or you worst nightmare in my perspective, for love is a strong word and its used to frequently, but in the three movies I have observed you find yourself truly believing in love and in my opinion, True love is out there, and if your lucky you will meet the right person, the man or woman of your dreams. The three movies I picked are Shakespearean plays, Romeo and Juliet, the modern movie made in 1996, Othello which is also a known classic, tragic love story, where two people truly loved each other and tired to make it work, but had many obstacles to overcome, with family and race. What is true love? Love means a warm liking or affection for a person, affectionate devotion. Does the way Romeo describe Juliet sound like love to you? In my opinion love does not occur at first sight, it is something that you need to work towards. This Shakespeare play is a classic made into a modern gang bang performance, with knifes not daggers, exceptionally ensemble cars, and different attitudes and clothing. The cast of Romeo and Juliet, in the recent movie made in 1996, The tale of Romeo & Juliet is about the happenings of two forbidden lovers. Their families The Montagues and The Capulets share an ancient grudge, and now it has broken to a new mutiny. The Capulets only daughter Juliet meets the Montagues only son Romeo at a costume ball held at the Capulet mansion. They experience love at first sight, each falling desperately in love as they see the other through an amazing fishtank. Their love is so strong that they are married the next day, keeping everything secret from their parents. Juliet's cousin Tybalt is angry at Romeo for being present at the Capulet ball, and he sets out to challenge Romeo to a duel. He meets up with Romeo just after Romeo and Juliet's marriage and in the effort to get Romeo to fight him(Romeo refuses to fight, Romeo's best friend Mercutio is killed. Romeo wreaks revenge and in a sudden fit of anger kills Tybalt. He's banished from Verona walls and before go ing to hideout in Mantua he spends the night with his love and wife, Juliet. The following morning Romeo travels to Mantua to wait for things to settle down before he returns to Verona.

Divorce is An American Family Tragedy Essay -- Informative Essays Fami

In America today, one of our main life goals is to marry the person we fall in love with, live happily ever after, and skip gleefully away to live the American dream. In most cases, after marriage then comes children which starts a family. This has been a part of human nature since the beginning. Marriage and family are the backbone of our culture. Families need each other for support, dependence, learning, love, encouragement, and ultimately survival. Parents are the ones that supply these needs, meanwhile supplying their own needs by depending on each other for love and support. Only the two of them can give this support because of what they are to each other, husband and wife. When two people get married, they are obviously in love and feel that they want to spend the rest of their lives with each other. They make the ultimate commitment to love one another and one another only, forsaking all others til death do they part. So if this is such an important part of our culture and we have such high goals to get married, then why do 40% of marriages end in divorce? Why does America have the highest divorce rate in the world? What makes couple who previously had fallen madly in love fall out of love and into divorce? What are the main causes of divorce and what are some of the warning signs that you, if you are married or soon to be married should be award of if you do not want your marriage to fail and become one of the statistics? There are many reasons people divorce and there are always very unique circumstances around certain divorces. According to the U.S. Bureau of the Census taken in 1992, younger people are marrying for the first time and only about 50-60% of these couples? marriages are surviving. That... ... of Denver and PREP Inc. Adults and children are at increased risk for mental and physical problems due to marital distress and divorce. Marital problems are associated with decreased work productivity, especially for men. Married men and women in all age groups are less likely to be limited in activity due to illness than single, separated, or divorced individuals (National Center for Health Statistics, 1997). Also children living with a single parent or adult report a higher percentage of activity limitation and higher rates of disability. They are also more likely to be in poorer health than children who do not come from a divorced family. Think about this before you untie the knot. The dangers that financial problems, lack of communication, and failure to work together as a team can impose on your marriage or future marriage can have devastating effects.

J.M. Coetzee’s Disgrace: Post-Apartheid South Africa Essay -- South Afr

You behave as if everything I do is part of the story of your life. You are the main character; I am a minor character who doesn't make an appearance until half way through. Well, contrary to what you think, people are not divided into major and minor. I am not minor. I have a life of my own, just as important to me as yours is to you, and in my life I am the one who makes the decisions (Coetzee 174) This is a poignant statement made by Lucy Lurie to her father David the protagonist and central consciousness of Disgrace. It is her response to his lack of understanding her life choices and his lack of deep regard for anyone but himself. It is his handicap, his inability to understand anything outside of his self-reflections, and his attitude is due to a level of arrogance and sense of privilege, as he continues his attempts at self-elevation. Lucy is protesting his inability to understand her life choices and the root of his lack of any deep regard for anyone but himself. When David loses his position at the University through his own arrogance,--one reading of the â€Å"disgrace† of the title, whether he feels it as such or not,--his partly conscious and partly unconscious search for reconciliation forces him to listen to the voices of formerly silenced persons, feminine, and black represented in the just quoted passage by his daughter. David in his narration bends the scope of his story toward the plight of women, rather than the â€Å"colored† in a post-apartheid South African landscape. Lucy is a convenient representation for David of those really disgraced in post-Apartheid South Africa, while David represents those seemingly disgraced who evade the realities of their actions, those unapologetic un-remorseful masses that excuse ... ...t of vipers. No, Professor Lurie, you may be high and mighty and have all kinds of degrees, but if I was you I’d be very ashamed of myself, so help me God. If I’ve got hold of the wrong end of the stick, now is your chance to say, but I don’t think so, I can see it from your face.’ Lurie whispers in response, ‘excuse me, I have business to attend to and walks away (Coetzee 38) David’s response to Melanie’s father in the passage above only further demonstrates what is echoed throughout the text. His avoidance, self-righteousness and inability to apologize become apparent. In that scene at the beginning of the novel we see David’s ability to evade a clear transgression made by him when confronted, and therefore gives us a glimpse of the person we will be depending on to tell us the story. Works Cited Coetzee, J. M. (2000) Disgrace. London: Vintage.

Journey Of A Ham Sandwich

The start of the process – the mouth: The digestive process begins in the mouth. The ham sandwich is partly broken down by the process of chewing and by the chemical action of salivary enzymes (these enzymes are produced by the salivary glands and break down starches into smaller molecules).On the way to the stomach: the oesophagus – After being chewed and swallowed, the food enters the oesophagus. The oesophagus is a long tube that runs from the mouth to the stomach. It uses rhythmic, wave-like muscle movements (called peristalsis) to force food from the throat into the stomach. This muscle movement gives us the ability to eat or drink even when we're upside-down.In the stomach – The stomach is a large, sack-like organ that churns the food and bathes it in a very strong acid (gastric acid). Food in the stomach that is partly digested and mixed with stomach acids is called chyme.In the small intestine – After being in the stomach, food enters the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine. It then enters the jejunum and then the ileum (the final part of the small intestine). In the small intestine, bile (produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder), pancreatic enzymes, and other digestive enzymes produced by the inner wall of the small intestine help in the breakdown of food.In the large intestine – After passing through the small intestine, food passes into the large intestine. In the large intestine, some of the water and electrolytes are removed from the food. Microbes are used in the large intestine to help in the digestion process. The first part of the large intestine is called the cecum (the appendix is connected to the cecum). Food then travels upward in the ascending colon. The food travels across the abdomen in the transverse colon, goes back down the other side of the body in the descending colon, and then through the sigmoid colon.The end of the process – Solid waste is then stored in the rectu m until it is excreted out of the anus.

Gap Years: Are They Worth The Risk? Essay

Every year, students fresh out of high school re locate to a new temporary home for college, ready to start the next chapter of life. While eager to do so, many students do not have a clue to what they want to pursue or pick majors that they are unsure of. A recent study released by ACT, College Choice Report Part 1: Preferences and Prospects, stated that nearly 80% of high school students taking the ACT selected a major they intended to select in college. However, 64% of those students choose a major that did not fit with their academic strengths and interests. This could have the possibility of increasing the number of students who change their majors which is never a bad thing, but time is money in the economy, and money is something that should not be wasted. Many students will not admit such a secret, but most are not ready to start college and are still slightly burned out from the work of high school. A solution to this problematic situation is an old trend, yet still commonly popular around the world, called a â€Å"Gap Year†. Taking time off may seem like a dangerous thought, but it is important to take time to dedicate yourself to finding out who you are, that’s why a gap year can help you save money in the long run, expand your knowledge of the world around you and even help your grades. One of the most difficult periods of life for a young adult, is college. Studying for classes, commuting, new expectations, and the list could go on for a long time, but one thing that tops it all is student debt. It is important to pick the right school and the right major, because if not, a lot of valuable time and money is wasted that could have gone into something that was a much better fit. This is where a â€Å"gap year† could be a helpful solution in the long run. It may not seem like a great idea at first and can even seem ludicrous that this idea could even save money, but if done correctly it can. The idea is that by taking a couple of months or a year off, the student should get a job, something that is new and can tech he or  she a new set of skills, volunteer for a charity or help around the community. â€Å"I’ve had parents tell me their child would probably have dropped out after first semester or year because they were so turned off by their classes in the academic experience, but a gap year helped them get excited and gave them a focus.† (Bull). Doing these activities can help one work through the process of finding their true calling and could possibly help them decide what major is right for them. Instead of diving head first off the highest cliff and into the cold, murky water below, the student has instead decided to take the scenic route and dip their feet into the clear water of the beaches. However, this can also be a bad idea for the irresponsible or lazy people who decide to take a year off. If instead of working they decide to slack off, they have wasted time and money that could be put towards their future and discovering more about the world and themselves. With so much around to explore, there is only a limited amount of time to do so while being young. While being young, our wallets are either empty from not working or full from working too much, and with school and curfews, these limits present a barricade to going far and exploring. College is a time to break these limits and explore, but there are still those barricades to a certain degree, which in life there will always be. But taking a gap year lessens the limits by extreme lengths, even promoting travelling and getting outside the usual comfort zone. By taking time off you learn a horizon of new things and get to explore uncharted areas of life that can be helpful to know for the future. Colleges, like Princeton and the University of North Carolina, are even supportive of this trend and even offer scholarships to scholars who decide to embark on such a journey (Hoder). There are a range of programs that offer to help youth during this time, and these organizations like the American Gap Association and USA Gap Fairs, are expanding very quickly to help young adults travel or with advice on how to tackle their own gap year. One issue with this however, is that there needs to be research and a plan before anything. Many students wait last minute and eagerly just don’t sign up for classes. They then realize that they have no clue what they want to do or that they may have chosen the wrong activity. Choosing the wrong program is similar to choosing the wrong major,  and while it may not be that expensive, it is still money going down the drain. That is why it is a good idea to brainstorm in advance what programs and places to travel may be a better fit and could possibly benefit the student’s future. Grades in high school are very important, but if there is one thing that makes that statement look like a soft teddy bear, it is grades in college, the flaming pits of hell. College is the key to anyone’s future and can make it or break it in certain cases. If pursuing a degree or major that the student is not interested in, there is a higher chance of that student letting their grade slip into turmoil. Robert Clagett, a senior admissions officer from Harvard has found that students who have taken a gap year, before rushing into college life, have GPAs that, on a 4.0 scale, are 0.15 to 0.2 higher than otherwise would be expected. In Randye Hoder’s article, â€Å"Why Your High School Senior Should Take a Gap Year†, she interviews A young woman, Corrine Monaco, who had gone to an academically rigorous school in New York, and by her second semester of her senior year, she was burned out from the hard work. She knew she couldn’t go diving back into school. She decided to then spend a few months traveling across the country. When she finally got to college, she was genuinely excited to be back in the classroom again. â€Å"Taking a gap year was the best decision I ever made.† Monaco said about her experience. It is common sense that someone who is overly worked will, overtime, begin to fatigue, which will show in their work academically or professionally. However, taking time off should be used to focus on the future or beneficial activities, and the main goal should be to return to school. If sight of that is lost, then a gap year could have been for nothing if wasted and nothing was learned. But not going to school doesn’t mean a gap year was also a waste. Some people could cross paths with a great opportunity that would not present itself again if they decided to stay on track and go to school. That is what a gap year is all about, finding ones path outside of the pressure from the world. A gap year can be the greatest experience or a complete waste of time, depending on how one looks at it. A negative stigma follows the trend, with many believing that once you take time off, you will not want to return.  Many people will deny this, but deep down, does anyone? When we take time off and spend it relaxing and exploring life, why would anyone want to return to the monotonous routine of school and work. But a gap year is supposed to solve that and help you find, not a job or something to make money, but a passion or a career that you want to do, not need to do. With society’s strong emphasis on money, which is a necessity of life in our time and era, many students zoom through their youth with their nose to the grindstone, missing out on life and lessons that may only present themselves once. It may not be for everyone, but a gap year is definitely something to consider if one is unsure of life and what direction they would like to take and can be very helpful if done right and with a positive outlook the journey and life itself. Sources 1. Blakmon, Olivia. â€Å"Just the Stats: Majority of College-Bound Students Select Wrong Majors.† – Higher Education. N.p., 5 Dec. 2013. Web. 04 Nov. 2014. 2. Driscoll, Emily. â€Å"Taking a Gap Year: What Students Should Consider.† Fox Business. N.p., 20 Sept. 2013. Web. 02 Oct. 2014. 3. Hoder, Randye. â€Å"Why Your High School Senior Should Take a Gap Year.† Time. Time, 14 May 2014. Web. 01 Oct. 2014. 4. Strutner, Suzy. â€Å"10 Reasons You Should Take A Gap Year.† The Huffington Post. TheHuffingtonPost.com, 30 Nov. 2013. Web. 01 Oct. 2014.